Pain In Stomach
Lower abdominal pain is common in pregnancy, especially in the second trimester. The pain has many causes, but the most common is pain in the ligaments in circumference, which is the muscles that hold the uterus in order to remain upright. When the uterus grows increasingly large, increasingly stretched ligaments in circumference, the more prone to stress. As a result, the pain often occurs even more so when the pregnant mother move.

Changes In Breast
In early pregnancy, breast tenderness, nipple sensitivity and breast size increase occurs as a normal part of the body adjustment. At the beginning of pregnancy, the breasts did not change significantly until the beginning of the third trimester, when mammary glands become active. Until the seventh month, the breasts produce less colostrum, a yellowish liquid that is meant for baby food in early life. Changes in nipple color is more blackened also occur during pregnancy.

Asphyxiate
Shortness of breath are common during pregnancy because the uterus that grows into a large space-consuming thus limiting the movement of the diaphragm. In addition, changes in hormone balance in the body during pregnancy also cause this.

Changes In Blood Circulation
Changes in blood circulation during pregnancy, especially noticeable in the legs begin. Blood vessels will be increasingly depressed as the content is getting bigger, especially the vessels that drain blood from the legs back. This pressure slows the blood circulation in the legs, and standing or sitting for a period long enough to make it worse. Disrupted blood causes fatigue in the legs. This usually can make the feet become swollen, especially on your ankles and feet if it has been long established. Similarly, blood vessels on the surface of the foot can be inflated, and this condition is usually called varicose veins.

Constipation
Constipation or difficult bowel movements are common in pregnant women.

Hair Changes
Pregnant women’s hair can be changed by an unexpected way during pregnancy. Changes in the hair occurs usually in the form of increasingly difficult for the administration and the hair combed back or easily tangled when it was combed. Some cases, the thinning of the hair and eyebrows. This kind of changes is only temporary.

Headache
Headache is also common in pregnant women. Some of the headaches experienced by pregnant women is a sine type, caused by increased blood flow and swelling of nasal blockage can also be increased to the nose. Besides fatigue and hormonal factors can also cause these headaches.

Bleeding gums and nosebleeds
The circulation of blood to the nose and gums during pregnancy. This increase is caused by hormonal changes that occur. Increased blood circulation can make women experience nosebleeds or bleeding gums.

Changes In Skin
A number of skin changes can be observed in pregnancy. Change the color becomes darker in some parts of the body. This is caused by the increase in certain hormones that increase the skin pigment. Also pregnant women often experience the strokes in the middle of the abdomen extending from the pubic area up to the navel. Will tend to be more oily skin, which sometimes becomes worse which caused the number of a pimple. May also result from itching, the rash on his arms, chest and face.

Get to know your body change and enjoy your pregnancy.

It’s generally recommended right now, that pregnant women get anywhere from 200 to 400 IU of vitamin D per day; prenatal vitamins contain 400 IU.
On that recommendation still arouse some arguments, with many researchers arguing that pregnant women — and everyone else — need more vitamin D than is officially advised.
For adults age 50 and younger to get 200 IU of vitamin D each day, while older adults should get 400 to 600 IU, Current U.S. guidelines called. The upper intake limit is set at 2,000 IU. It is thought that the risk of vitamin D toxicity (symptoms such as nausea, vomiting and weight loss) may go up with intakes beyond that level.
The U.S. guidelines are currently under review. However, research in recent years has been challenging those ideas on what is enough, and what is too much, vitamin D.
“The 400 IU in prenatal vitamins remains the recommended daily intake for pregnant women” Said Robinson.

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What is abortion exactly? Abortion is the termination of a pregnancy after, accompanied by, resulting in, or closely followed by the death of the embryo or fetus as the spontaneous expulsion of a human fetus during the first 12 weeks of gestation.(Webster Online, Def. 1).

Some people concur with abortion. First, they think it is absolutely the right of mother. If she does not want to have a baby thus she may make that baby will not be born. There are many cases which happen on women to compose their goals and ambition in life with taking responsibility and caring for a child. On the contrary, women believe that having a child is a longlife responsibility. They cannot put aside the baby after they have it. Thus before giving birth, the mother must consider whether she is able to take care of the baby or not. Secondly, in another case when a pregnancy is the result of sexual violence like we have recently, society should permit the woman to do because the pregnancy is unwanted. The woman is the victim. Thus the victim should not be made to suffer doubly, once for the violence and then still for the result of the violence. Third, abortion is something must to do when the mother’s health is at risk. From the two previous arguments for approving abortion, this is the only argument which is acceptable by all. For saving the mother’s life, abortion is the only choice.

On the other hand, some other people are firmly against abortion. Those voices of dissent grow with several opinions. First, someone who does an abortion is a murder. They rely on their own belief that fetus is a human being, a person from the moment of conception. Thus, fetus are pro-life. When the mother does the abortion of her fetus, it is the time she kills her own baby. Second, abortion is against the teaching of every religion in the world. Our belief teaches us to have responsibility of everything we do. So when you bravely have a sex relationship, you must take everything will occur as a proverb says “You can’t have your cake and eat it too”. The last, if the woman does not want a child, after giving birth she can give the baby up to the other woman or family who are in desperate need of a baby. As we know, there are still many couples who want to have a child but they do not. Giving away an unwanted baby to be adopted by others is better than do the abortion. It will give another woman the joy for becoming a mother. In addition, perhaps the child will get much love and the basic right to live.

Based on the arguments for and against abortion, a couple should consider whether they want to have a baby or not before having a sex relationship. If they do not, they can use a control method for making their sexual relation more secure so that there will be not an abortion.

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These are the most comfortable sexual positions and recommended during pregnancy.

Women over men: This position is one of the most convenient because it can control your weight, movement, pace and penetration.

Aside: This position manages an even distribution of weight and is recommended as the penetration is not very deep.

The pose of the missionary (man on top) is not recommended because women should not support the weight of your partner on your belly, or stand upright for too long.

Penetration from the back: It is one of the most popular practice during the final stage of pregnancy. The two put aside, your partner behind you (watching your back). Penetration was carried out at the rear, this frees your belly pose any pressure or weight.

Seated: Your partner sitting in a chair and sit on it with your legs open. This position is very pleasant.

Doggy style: Colocate bed on the support arms and knees (as if you were to crawl), if necessary using pillows to support your belly and your chest. You penetrate your partner behind. This is one of the preferred positions for pregnant women, as this position will allow you to enjoy the deepest penetration.

If for whatever reason, your doctor discourages you have sex during pregnancy, consult for other opportunities for intimacy.

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The study found that women of different weights should gain different amounts of weight during their pregnancy, while some of the more obese women would be better off losing some of the extra pounds. The Institute of Medicine???s current guidelines say women should gain at least 15 pounds during pregnancy, without placing an upper limit on pregnancy weight gain.
“Not only were there no deleterious effects, but there are benefits,” said study author Dr. Raul Artal of Saint Louis University School of Medicine.

By analyzing the results of their study, the researchers were able to come up with optimal ranges of weight gain:
- for a BMI of 30-34.9, the best outcomes came with a weight gain of 10 to 25 pounds
- for a BMI of 35-39.9, gaining less than nine pounds was best
- for those with a BMI over 40, losing up to nine pounds was best.
Investigators say pregnancy is a big factor in the obesity crisis. Study author Raul Artal, M.D., says, ???Weight gain increases in subsequent pregnancies because women accumulate weight with each pregnancy and don???t lose it.??? He says it really comes down to mom to control the rest of the family. They write, ???This is a multi-generational problem. The behavior modification starts with mom. If mothers are overeating and not exercising, that???s how the rest of the family is likely to behave.???

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Jaworowicz’s research, which was presented at the Society for Epidemiologic Research’s annual meeting in Boston, Mass., found no association of other pregnancy-related medical conditions — pregnancy-induced hypertension, preeclampsia, gestational diabetes or weight gain — and breast-cancer risk.
One hormone made in the placenta has been shown in laboratory tests to be potentially protective against cancer. Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) affects foetal development, and is routinely measured for pregnancy tests. Home testing kits show if higher than normal levels of hCG are present in the urine.

“Pregnancy is a time when the breast undergoes a variety of cellular and anatomical changes,” said Jaworowicz. “During this period, the breast tissue is exposed to varying levels of a number of hormones, which may affect the physiology of the breast.
“We were interested in the association between pregnancy-related events and characteristics, including pregnancy-induced hypertension, preeclampsia/eclampsia, gestational diabetes, high weight gain during pregnancy, and nausea and vomiting, because these markers may serve as proxies for underlying hormonal changes and altered hormone levels in blood and tissue.”

In contrast, pregnancy-associated nausea and vomiting was associated with about a 30 percent lower risk of breast cancer. Greater severity and longer duration of the symptoms reduced the risk even further.
Freudenheim cautioned, however, that this is an epidemiologic study, so the findings should not be “over-interpreted.” Confirmation of their findings, she added, will require replication in other populations.

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Insulin resistance seems to be a key feature in polycystic ovarian syndrome. The underlying cause of PCOS, Insulin Resistance, has many factors that contribute to its presence in the body. The increased incidence of insulin resistance occurs in all PCOS women, not simply obese women. When someone is insulin resistant, this means that cells throughout the body do not readily respond to the insulin circulating in the blood.
Most women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) are obese and are known to be insulin resistant. Obesity per se is a cause of insulin Syndrome X. The hormone insulin is primarily known for its role in glucose regulation. Under normal circumstances, insulin assures the efficient transfer of glucose from the bloodstream to the body. Insulin also serves as a signal to the liver to begin or discontinue glucose production.

One of the most important issues is determining whether you have PCOS. There are other endocrine disorders that are similar to PCOS, and it is important that you work with your doctor to determine if you have PCOS, or something else.
Polycystic ovary syndrome
- Presence of menstrual abnormalities and anovulation
- Presence of clinical and/or biochemical hyperandrogenaemia
- Absence of hyperprolactinaemia or thyroid disease
- Absence of late-onset congenital adrenal hyperplasia
- Absence of Cushing???s syndrome

At present, there are no pharmaceutical drugs that can heal PCOS. Even the removal of the ovaries will not completely eliminate this disorder. A complete system of elements is needed to treat this condition’s underlying cause, Insulin Resistance.
A significant degree of insulin resistance exists in non-obese women with PCOS and is significantly related to serum LH and free testosterone levels.
Therefore, measures to decrease this condition may have to be considered earlier to decrease the potential risks of developing diabetes mellitus and coronary artery disease at later ages of life in both overweight and normal weight women who have PCOS.

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This study focuses on medical evaluations for asthma and related symptoms (i.e., wheezing) when the children were five years old. As a result of the evaluations cited in this research, other than apples, there were no consistent associations found between prenatal consumption of a range of healthful foods and asthma in the 1253 children who were evaluated. These same researchers previously reported positive associations between maternal consumption of vitamins A, E, D and zinc with reduced risk of asthma, wheeze and eczema in children.

The only other positive association found between prenatal food intake and risk reduction in the children was with fish, for which the researchers found that children of mothers who ate fish had a lowered incidence of doctor-confirmed eczema. “The present study suggests beneficial associations between maternal apple intake during pregnancy and wheeze and asthma at age five,” according to the researchers.
They added that their findings “suggest an apple specific effect, possibly because of its phytochemical content, such as flavonoids.”

Asthma is a chronic disease of the airways, which causes attacks of wheezing, shortness of breath, chest tightness and coughing. There is no cure for asthma, though symptoms sometimes decrease over time. With proper self-management and medical treatment, most people with asthma can live normal lives.

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1. Get On A Regular Sex Schedule
The standard advice to have sex midcycle isn’t a surefire road to pregnancy. Common wisdom says that ovulation occurs 14 days before your next period is due and that you’re most likely to conceive on that day and the five days before (because sperm can survive in a woman’s reproductive tract for several days). But a recent study shows ovulation isn’t so predictable. Researchers at the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences found that the exact day varies from woman to woman. To complicate matters further, you may ovulate on different days each month.

Tracking your basal body temperature or using an ovulation-predictor monitor can signal one or two fertile days. The best plan is probably to have unprotected sex two or three times every week, says Allen J. Wilcox, M.D., an epidemiologist at NIEHS and the lead researcher of the study. “That way, you have a better chance of covering your bases.”

2. Quit Smoking
Numerous studies have shown that women who smoke even a few cigarettes a day take longer to get pregnant, says Robert Barbieri, M.D., chair of obstetrics and gynecology at Brigham and Women’s Hospital in Boston and coauthor of 6 Steps to Increased Fertility. Most recently, researchers at Massachusetts General Hospital found that a chemical in cigarette smoke actually causes eggs to self-destruct.

3. Avoid Alcohol
Most of us know that we shouldn’t drink once we become pregnant but don’t realize that alcohol can affect our ability to conceive in the first place. Women who have one to five alcoholic drinks a week are 39 percent less likely to get pregnant compared with women who don’t drink, according to a study of 430 Danish couples published in the British Medical journal. Those who had more than 10 drinks a week lowered their odds by 66 percent. Researchers aren’t sure exactly how alcohol affects fertility, but they suspect it upsets hormone balance and prevents ovulation.

4. Aim For A Healthy Weight
Being too thin or too heavy can stop you from ovulating (even if your periods seem normal) or might prevent a fertilized egg from implanting in the uterus. One study of 3,586 women undergoing fertility treatment found that having a body mass index above or below the healthy range (between 20 and 24.9) reduced the odds of getting pregnant by 19 percent. Reaching the right weight often corrects the problem in just one or two cycles. When you’re trying to get pregnant, it is important to be sure to balance calorie intake and exercise levels.

5. Go Easy On Caffeine
There’s been a lot of conflicting advice about the effect caffeine has on fertility and miscarriage. Having a cup or two of coffee doesn’t seem to cause any problems, but more than that might delay conception. The cutoff point is about 300 milligrams a day. Given that caffeine is found in many other places besides coffee, reaching that limit isn’t very difficult. (Some caffeine counts: 8-ounce cup of coffee, 137 mg; Dunkin’ Donuts large coffee, 161 mg; Starbucks Grande, 280 mg; 12-ounce diet cola, 50 mg; 8-ounce cup of tea, 47 mg; an ounce of dark chocolate, 5 to 35 mg; Z Excedrin Extra Strength tablets, 130 mg.)

6. Address Emotional Issues
“Women with a history of depression are twice as likely to become infertile at some point during their reproductive lives,” says Domar. No one knows exactly why, but one theory is that negative moods might increase the body’s production of the hormone prolactin, possibly disrupting the menstrual cycle. Some studies suggest that simply being stressed out makes it harder to conceive, but experts disagree about the impact of stress on fertility. Research has shown that the pressure of trying to get pregnant can lead to depression, sometimes in just a few months. Fortunately, stress management or a support group can help. In one study, nearly 44 percent of women who had been struggling with infertility for one to 10 years got pregnant after participating in a program that combined relaxation techniques with group support.

7. Watch Your Medication
A variety of prescription and over-thecounter drugs have been associated with fertility problems in both partners. Of course, you should never stop taking a prescribed drug without discussing it with your doctor, but let her know that you’re trying to get pregnant. There may be a safe substitute you can use.

For women, the biggest offenders appear to be antidepressants, tranquilizers and thyroid medications. (In the latter case, the problem could be dosage, says Dr. Barbieri.) Regular use of aspirin, ibuprofen or acetaminophen may also disrupt ovulation.

In men, antibiotics like tetracycline, the heartburn drug Tagamet, antidepressants and blood-pressure medications may affect sperm quality or quantity. Both men and women should be careful about taking herbal supplements. In one test tube study, Saint-John’s-wort, ginkgo and echinacea were found to have damaged eggs and sperm. No one knows if the herbs would have the same effect in the human body, but it seems prudent to avoid them.

8. Improve Your Lovemaking
First, assume the right positionmissionary. No studies prove the superiority of the traditional man-on-top option, but many fertility experts say that this position places sperm closest to the cervix. Choose lubricants carefully. Many of them (even saliva) slow down sperm and reduce the number of them that reach the cervix. Enough foreplay usually eliminates the need for lubricants, but if you want to use one, try a little vegetable oil, says Paul J. Turek, M.D., director of the Male Reproductive Laboratory at the University of California San Francisco Medical Center. (It may seem a bit odd-and might be a little messy-but it’s perfectly safe.) Afterward, stay on your back for 20 to 30 minutes to give the sperm the best chance of reaching their ultimate destination.

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Unlike other research projects in which women who had given birth were asked how much coffee they drank while pregnant, the Danish scientists monitored 1,207 pregnant coffee lovers who were randomly selected to drink either a caffeinated or decaffeinated brew during the second half of the pregnancy. The group was split into two, with 568 women drinking ordinary instant coffee and 629 drinking decaffeinated. Each woman was regularly monitored to check her caffeine intake, including from drinks such as cola. The authors then monitored the birth weight of 1,150 newborn babies and the length of pregnancy for 1,153 of the babies. Among women drinking caffeinated coffee, 4.2 percent of infants were born prematurely, and 4.5 percent were small for gestational age, vs. 5.2 percent premature births and 4.7 percent underweight in the decaffeinated group.

“This study is better than the other studies that have been published because it’s based on a much stronger design,” said senior author Dr. Jorn Olsen, professor and chair of the department of epidemiology at the University of California, Los Angeles. “This study provides pretty good evidence that caffeine, in itself, does not reduce fetal growth, although it may have other side effects.”
Women who smoked more than 10 cigarettes a day had babies with a lower mean birth weight if they were randomized to the caffeinated group compared with smokers randomized to the decaffeinated group. Although that finding may be due to chance, the authors stated, it could also be because smokers metabolize caffeine faster than non-smokers. And caffeine may have effects beyond the ones studied.

“We cannot rule out that caffeine could produce miscarriage or other things. Our study only looked at fetal growth and preterm delivery, so that’s the only thing we know about,” Olsen said. “We have no reason to believe that coffee is a necessary food item for pregnant women. I think it’s wise that they should be a little cautious, but, in any case, if a pregnant woman gave birth to a low birth weight baby, it’s highly unlikely that this was the case.”

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Children of the 1,000 women who had smoked during pregnancy were three times more likely to start smoking by the age of 14 and twice as likely afterwards compared to other children. The researchers said their results were consistent with findings of earlier studies into the impact of smoking during pregnancy on the child. “This shows that smoking specifically during this time will do the most damage,” said lead author Abdullah Al Mamun of the University of Queensland.
“It is some of the first evidence that this behaviour has a direct effect, not an indirect effect, on the child’s chances of becoming a smoker.”
Researchers are hoping that the findings of their study will determine expecting mothers to give up smoking for at least nine months, until the baby is brought into the world.

Nick Zwar, professor of general practice at the University of NSW, said that as more harm was seen in heavy smokers, “you would think that if heavy smokers cut down, they would have lesser risks”.
“But that doesn’t seem to be the case,” he said.
However, Professor Zwar said the Australian study had to be treated with some caution, because it was possible there were other hidden factors associated with women who smoked in pregnancy that could be causing the children to smoke, rather than the mother’s behaviour.

Although stretch marks can diminish over time, most people tend to be pro-active about stretch marks. Recent products are out in the market. These medical products help remove stretch marks from visible areas in your body. Albeit extremely expensive, topical creams, ointments and medical operations are also provided by cosmetologists and dermatologists for the removal of stretch marks. It is advisable though that since the human body has its own process and its own natural time frame, either you best leave stretch marks alone rather than risk costly medical operations that do not guarantee much for most women, or you prevent stretch marks from happening at all.

How do you prevent stretch marks? Certain foods contain properties that either dry up the skin or fats that accumulate fast in certain areas of the body. Certain foods that induce the fast production of stretch marks must also be avoided. Foods to avoid include chocolate and chocolate drinks, coffee, tea and soda as these contain skin-drying properties and caffeine. Fruits, vegetables, proteins such as white meat, fish, yogurt, milk, peanuts and fibrous foods help prevent stretch marks. Enough sleep, hydration or adequate intake of water and liquid also reduce the chances of getting those highly undesirable stretch marks.

A spokesperson for Spears said she had dropped her pregnancy weight without a trainer, diet pills or a nutritionist. Just by doing one-hour training sessions twice a day and sticking to a diet of six small meals a day, basically cut out on carbohydrate intake and exercised. Her six small meals a day, consist of no fast food but only healthy snacks, like fruit, nuts and low-fat yogurt.

For any woman, after enduring nine months of pregnancy symptoms, including 5-6 months of extra weight, it’s quite natural to want to normalize your weight and regain your pre-pregnancy shape as soon as possible. When you give birth, you lose around 6 kilos (13 pounds) immediately. When you return home again, you continue to lose water and, once your uterus returns to its original size, you will lose another two to three kilos (four to seven pounds).
Life after giving birth typically throws up a new set of problems, which can cut across your plans to lose weight. Most of them are either being too hard on themselves or someone who should be supporting their wonderful mothering is being to hard on them.

It is important to allow your weight to come off slowly. This process should happen naturally as long as excess kilojoules are not consumed. Aim to give yourself around six months to get your figure back naturally before resorting to a restricted eating plan.
Celebrities like Britney who give birth are surrounded by dietitians, nurses and fitness experts. Plus, they often have major commercial commitments to safeguard. That’s why we should forget about celebrity moms who lose weight instantly, they are not a good example upon which to base your own postpartum weight loss goals.

This is few tips for getting into shape safely and a little bit faster on losing weight after pregnancy:
- Eat healthy foods. Some variety of foods including breads, cereals, rice, pasta, vegetables, legumes, fruits, milk, cheese, yogurt, lean meat, poultry, fish, eggs, nuts and seeds. With plenty of water, no soda and juice.
Avoid greasy snack foods and so-called healthy foods like cheese and whole milk.
- Try to build some outdoor activity into your day. Generally, exercise is a good method for countering that effect, but perhaps your walking is not intense enough to do that. This suggestion may sound counterintuitive, but I recommend you up your calorie intake to 1,800 to 2,000 calories a day (of low-fat, nutrient-dense food) and also increase the intensity of your exercising (try running instead of walking, or walk at a brisker pace for a longer time).
- Combining 100 to 200 fewer calories per day of higher fat foods (that’s just a couple spoonfuls of dressing or a piece of cheese) with 20 to 40 minutes of a good walk with your baby (200 calories out) will lead to exactly the weight loss and conditioning you want.

Remember, it is not safe or healthy to lose weight rapidly, especially while nursing. You do not want to risk a reduced milk production or a depletion of your bone and muscle tissue for the sake of getting back to your prepregnancy weight. After 2-3 months, when you feel your strength is returning and when your period has returned to normal, you can start following a healthy, weight loss diet, and taking more vigorous exercise.
This is not a contest nor a sprint. You are an extraordinarily important and extraordinarily busy person: a Mother. Get into shape at a pace that suits you, not the rest of the world.

The findings come from a study of 1,837 pregnant women who were surveyed in the waiting rooms of five Michigan obstetrics clinics, using a standard questionnaire that detects signs of depression. Only one in three of these women were being treated for their depression.
All of these women had follow-up interviews with trained mental health workers who assessed them using the standard criteria used to diagnose depression, and asked them about their mental health and treatment history.
Study investigators report no significant differences among women of different races, ethnicities, employment situations, education levels, marital status, or parental situation. The only factors that were found to increase a woman’s chance of treatment were severe symptoms at the time of the study, a history of major depression and a history of any psychiatric treatment.

Pregnant women who are experiencing depression may think their symptoms are just a normal part of pregnancy. But in fact, the following signs may indicate symptoms of depression:
* Two or more weeks of a depressed mood
* Decreased interest in activities
* Change in appetite
* Change in sleep patterns
* Fatigue
* Difficulty concentrating
* Excessive feelings of worthlessness or guilt
* Thoughts of suicide
* Extreme irritability

This suggests that women who are already accustomed to accessing the mental health system may be most likely to do so if they experience depressive symptoms during pregnancy, while other women may not recognize their symptoms ??? or may not know, or believe, that they can get help from a mental health provider.
Pregnant women who are experiencing possible signs of depression, or who have a history of depression, should talk to their doctors or midwives immediately. Medications, talk therapy, stress reduction, exercise and other steps can help ease depression safely during pregnancy and beyond.

These children, they said, are at greater risk of developing atherosclerosis – the thickening of the artery walls due to fatty deposits – and may as a result suffer from heart attacks and strokes later in life. Atherosclerosis is a condition in which the artery walls thicken due to fat deposits thereby increasing the risk of heart attacks and strokes. Researcher Dr Catharine Gale said atherosclerosis was a progressive condition that started early in life.
“Our study provides direct evidence for the first time in humans that the mother’s diet in pregnancy might influence the child’s susceptibility to atherosclerosis.

Though doctors and experts advice pregnant women to eat about 2,500 calories a day but the split up of calories that came from protein, fat and carbohydrates is not known.
The researchers said it did not matter what proportion of the calorie intake came from fat, protein or carbohydrate – it was the total calorie intake that was important. The association between artery thickness and calorific intake remained strong even after taking account of factors such as social class, smoking, exercise habits and sickness in pregnancy.

Judy O’Sullivan, a cardiac nurse at the British Heart Foundation, said: “This study indicates that a low calorie intake during pregnancy affects the thickness of the carotid artery.
“This thickness can be a good indication of athersclerosis in adults but more work needs to be done before we can say the same is true for children. Our advice to pregnant women is that a healthy balanced diet is essential to give both mother and baby the best chance of a healthier life.
“A restricted or low calorie diet should not be followed during pregnancy.”